Types of Causatives: Lexical and Periphrastic Constructions

Abstract: Causativity, the linguistic expression of an agent bringing about a change of state or event, is a fundamental semantic concept encoded in diverse ways across languages. This paper explores two primary types of causative constructions: lexical and periphrastic. Lexical causatives involve a single verb that inherently encodes both the causing event and the caused event, often exhibiting a direct semantic relationship. In contrast, periphrastic causatives employ a separate causative verb (often a light verb) along with a non-causative predicate, allowing for a more explicit decomposition of the causative event and a wider range of semantic nuances such as permission, coercion, or delegation. This paper will delineate the structural, semantic, and pragmatic distinctions between these two types, illustrating their formation, characteristics, and the motivations behind their usage in English and other languages.

Causation is a universal cognitive and linguistic concept, describing a relationship where one event or entity (the cause) leads to another event or state (the effect). Languages possess various mechanisms to express this complex relationship, ranging from morphological derivations to multi-word constructions. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for comprehending the intricate interplay between syntax, semantics, and pragmatics in human language.

This paper focuses on two major categories of causative constructions: lexical causatives and periphrastic causatives. While both ultimately convey the notion of one participant bringing about an event involving another, they differ significantly in their structural complexity, semantic transparency, and the specific nuances of causation they convey. Lexical causatives are often considered “direct” and “integrated,” whereas periphrastic causatives offer more “decomposed” and often “indirect” or “mediated” forms of causation. This exploration will illuminate how these distinct linguistic strategies contribute to the richness and flexibility of expressing causality in language.

Periphrastic causatives involve the use of a separate causative verb (often referred to as a “light verb” or “auxiliary causative”) followed by a complement, which expresses the caused event. This structure allows for a more analytical and often more indirect expression of causation.

1. Make

• Meaning: Implies direct coercion, compulsion, or forcing someone to do something. The causee usually has little or no choice in the matter.
• Example:
  • The teacher made the students study. (Coercion)
  • The rain made the streets slippery. (Inanimate cause, direct effect)
• Structure:
  • make + causee + bare infinitive (for animate causees)
  • make + causee + adjective or verb phrase (for inanimate causees)

2. Have

• Meaning: Primarily expresses delegation, arrangement, or causing something to be done by another party. The causer arranges or instructs the causee to perform the action, often involving services.
• Example:
  • I had my car repaired. (Delegation; someone else performed the repair)
  • She had her assistant prepare the report. (Instruction/delegation)
• Structure:
  • have + causee + past participle (passive causation/service)
  • have + causee + bare infinitive (active delegation or instruction)

3. Let

• Meaning: Conveys permission or allowance. The causer enables or permits the causee to perform an action, emphasizing consent rather than compulsion.
• Example:
  • My parents let me go to the party. (Permission)
  • The guard let him pass. (Allowance)
• Structure:
  • let + causee + bare infinitive

4. Get

• Meaning: Often implies persuasion, effort, or overcoming resistance to bring about the causee’s action. It can also indicate arranging for a service, frequently with more active involvement from the causer.
• Example:
  • I got him to fix the computer. (Persuasion or coaxing)
  • She got her hair cut. (Arrangement, implying some effort on causer’s part)
• Structure:
  • get + causee + to-infinitive (active, persuasion)
  • get + causee + past participle (passive, arrangement/service)

5. Cause

• Meaning: A formal, often indirect causative verb, typically used with abstract or inanimate subjects. It implies an initiating or resulting action that may not be intentional or direct.
• Example:
  • The explosion caused the building to collapse. (Resulting action)
  • His negligence caused the accident. (Abstract cause)
• Structure:
  • cause + causee + to-infinitive

Summary Table

4.2. Semantic and Pragmatic Characteristics

Indirect Causation: Periphrastic causatives can express various degrees of indirectness, mediation, permission, or coercion. The causal chain is often more explicit.

Semantic Decomposition: The causing event and the caused event are expressed by distinct syntactic units (the main verb and the complement), making the semantic relationship more transparent.

Productivity: They are highly productive, meaning they can be formed with a wide range of verbs that do not have lexical causative counterparts.

Control by Causee: The causee might retain some degree of agency or volition, depending on the specific causative verb used (let implies volition, make implies lack thereof).

Explicit Role of Causer: The role of the causer (e.g., forcing, permitting, delegating) is explicitly encoded by the choice of the periphrastic verb.

5. Key Distinctions and Overlap

Overlap and Continuum: While distinct, the boundary between lexical and periphrastic causatives is not always absolute. Some verbs might exist in both forms with subtle semantic differences. For instance, “The explosion caused the building to collapse” vs. “The explosion collapsed the building.” The lexical “collapsed” implies a more direct and immediate effect, whereas “caused to collapse” might imply a slightly more indirect causal chain or a focus on the reason rather than the agentive action.

Furthermore, across languages, the preference for one construction over another varies. Some languages are highly morphological, preferring lexical or agglutinative causatives (e.g., Turkish), while others lean more towards periphrastic constructions (e.g., Chinese, with very few morphological causatives).

6. Conclusion

The distinction between lexical and periphrastic causatives provides a valuable framework for understanding how languages encode the fundamental concept of causation. Lexical causatives, characterized by their integrated semantics and often direct causal relationships, offer conciseness and are frequently at the core of verb lexicalization. Periphrastic causatives, on the other hand, provide a more analytical and flexible means of expressing a broader spectrum of causal relationships, including nuances of coercion, permission, and delegation, by explicitly separating the causative predicate from the caused event.

The choice between these two types is not arbitrary but is governed by structural constraints, semantic requirements, and pragmatic considerations, reflecting the speaker’s intent regarding directness, responsibility, and the nature of the causal chain. Studying these constructions illuminates the rich interplay between syntax and semantics, revealing how diverse linguistic strategies allow speakers to articulate the complex ways in which events come to pass in the world.

Reference

• Comrie, B. (1989). Language Universals and Linguistic Typology. University of Chicago Press. (General reference on typological aspects)
• Levin, B. (1993). English Verb Classes and Alternations: A Preliminary Investigation. University of Chicago Press. (For verb alternations, including causative-inchoative)
• Shibatani, M. (1976). The grammar of causative constructions: A conspectus. In M. Shibatani (Ed.), Syntax and semantics, Vol. 6: The grammar of causative constructions (pp. 1-40). Academic Press. (A foundational work on causatives)
• Wierzbicka, A. (1980). Lingua Mentalis: The Semantics of Natural Language. Academic Press. (For semantic decomposition)

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