Causative alternations in Arabic occur when a verb can alternate between a non-causative (intransitive or transitive) form and a causative form, often through changes in the verb’s morphology. These alternations are a common feature in Arabic due to its root-and-pattern morphological system. Below are some examples of causative alternations in Arabic verbs:
- Form I (Base Form) to Form II (Causative)
In Arabic, Form I verbs are often intransitive or transitive, while Form II verbs (with a geminated middle radical) are commonly used to express the causative form.
Example 1:
Root: d-r-s (د-ر-س)
Form I (Intransitive):
درس (darasa) – “He studied.”
Meaning: The subject is performing the action of studying (non-causative; intransitive).
Form II (Causative):
درّس (darrasa) – “He taught (made someone study).”
Meaning: The subject causes someone else to study (causative; transitive).
Example 2:
Root: k-t-b (ك-ت-ب)
Form I (Transitive):
كتب (kataba) – “He wrote.”
Meaning: The subject performs the action of writing (non-causative; transitive).
Form II (Causative):
كتّب (kattaba) – “He made someone write.”
Meaning: The subject causes someone else to perform the action of writing (causative; transitive).
- Form I to Form IV (Causative)
Form IV verbs are another common way to express causation. This form is typically created by prefixing the root with the vowel ‘a- (أ) and often involves a change in the internal vowel pattern.
Example 3:
Root: k-b-r (ك-ب-ر)
Form I (Intransitive):
كبر (kabura) – “He became big / He grew.”
Meaning: The subject grows or becomes big (non-causative; intransitive).
Form IV (Causative):
أكبر (‘akbara) – “He made (something/someone) bigger.”
Meaning: The subject causes someone or something else to grow or become bigger (causative; transitive).
Example 4:
Root: d-kh-l (د-خ-ل)
Form I (Intransitive):
دخل (dakhala) – “He entered.”
Meaning: The subject enters a place (non-causative; intransitive).
Form IV (Causative):
أدخل (‘adkhala) – “He made (someone) enter.”
Meaning: The subject causes someone or something to enter (causative; transitive).
- Reflexive and Causative Alternations
In some cases, Arabic verbs alternate between reflexive and causative forms. Form V (with a prefix ta- and a geminated middle radical) is often reflexive or passive, while Form II is causative.
Example 5:
Root: r-j-‘ (ر-ج-ع)
Form I (Intransitive):
رجع (raja‘a) – “He returned.”
Meaning: The subject returns (non-causative; intransitive).
Form V (Reflexive):
ترجّع (tarajja‘a) – “He returned (oneself).”
Meaning: The subject returns itself (reflexive).
Form II (Causative):
رجّع (rajja‘a) – “He made (someone) return.”
Meaning: The subject causes someone or something to return (causative; transitive).
- Form I to Form III (Causative of Reciprocal Action)
Form III verbs often express a causative or reciprocal meaning. The causative in this case often involves the subject causing an action that affects another party.
Example 6:
Root: q-r-b (ق-ر-ب)
Form I (Intransitive):
قرب (qaruba) – “He came close.”
Meaning: The subject becomes close (non-causative; intransitive).
Form III (Causative/Reciprocal):
قارب (qāraba) – “He approached (someone).”
Meaning: The subject causes themselves to approach or come close to someone (causative/reciprocal).
- Form I to Form VII (Passive and Causative Alternation)
In some cases, Form VII (with a prefix in- (ان)) is used for passives or reflexive meanings, while Form I is the base form.
Example 7:
Root: k-s-r (ك-س-ر)
Form I (Transitive):
كسر (kasara) – “He broke (something).”
Meaning: The subject breaks something (non-causative; transitive).
Form VII (Passive):
انكسر (inkasara) – “It was broken / It broke by itself.”
Meaning: Something was broken or broke by itself (passive/reflexive).
In this case, though Form VII is not strictly a causative form, it contrasts with the active Form I, showing how different patterns can highlight the complexity of verb alternation in Arabic.
| Root | Form I (Non-Causative) | Form II/IV (Causative) |
| د-ر-س | درس (darasa) – “He studied.” | درّس (darrasa) – “He made someone study.” |
| ك-ت-ب | كتب (kataba) – “He wrote.” | كتّب (kattaba) – “He made someone write.” |
| ك-ب-ر | كبر (kabura) – “He became big.” | أكبر (‘akbara) – “He made (someone/something) bigger.” |
| د-خ-ل | دخل (dakhala) – “He entered.” | أدخل (‘adkhala) – “He made (someone) enter.” |
| ر-ج-ع | رجع (raja‘a) – “He returned.” | رجّع (rajja‘a) – “He made (someone) return.” |
Summary of Causative Alternations
Conclusion
Causative alternations in Arabic showcase the language’s rich morphological system. Through patterns like Form II and Form IV, Arabic is able to express a wide range of causative meanings, often by making subtle changes to the root structure of verbs. Understanding these alternations is crucial for grasping the syntactic and semantic intricacies of Arabic verbs.
